This article is part of our ongoing “Introduction Series” that talks about the different genres of Japanese film and how to better appreciate them. The "yakuza", Japan’s outlaws, are the topic of the third installment. We’ve separated it into Part I and Part II to better cover this entertaining genre of films, a favorite of renowned directors the world over including Quentin Tarantino.

The roots of "yakuza" films can be traced back to before World War II. They consist of a diverse collection of works that includes everything from "Battles Without Honor and Humanity" (also known as "The Yakuza Papers") (1973) and the films of director Takeshi Kitano up through "Yakuza and the Family", which was distributed worldwide via Netflix in 2021. They take on a different format with every generation, driven by changes in the film industry as well as differences in how the social standing of "yakuza" has evolved over the years.

We asked Yukio Todoroki and Naoto Mori, two film writers who are experts in the history of Japanese cinema, to tell us about the history of "yakuza" films along with relevant changes in Japanese society. Part I of this installment starts with the origins of "yakuza" films through the time when director Kinji Fukasaku’s "Battles Without Honor and Humanity" (1973) was released.

Interviewer/Author: Naoto Mori, Main Visual: Shigeo Okada, Editor: Goshi Kuno & Satomi Hara (Cinra, Inc.)

Tracing "yakuza" films back to their roots in period dramas

Todoroki: Asking someone to define "yakuza" films may seem like a straightforward question, but it’s actually an extremely broad topic.

Starting in the 1950s and 1960s, which is generally regarded as the Golden Age of Film in postwar Japan, and on through the 1970s, when the entertainment world was put under tremendous financial pressure, the major production studios (Shochiku, Toho, Daiei, Toei, Shintoho, and Nikkatsu) worked under an intense mass-production system. Shintoho went bankrupt in 1961, followed by Daiei in 1971—but "yakuza" films starring outlaw characters got their start as one of the genres of “program pictures” churned out by these six companies. Program pictures were commercial films done completely in-house, from production to distribution and release. That’s probably the best way to look at them in terms of a rough definition.

Mori: If you define "yakuza" films as genre films in the strictest sense, you could say they started with Toei’s "ninkyo" films born in the 1960s ("ninkyo" is often used interchangeably with the word "yakuza", though it originally referred to a chivalrous character who fights the strong to protect the weak). More specifically, the general consensus is that the general category of "ninkyo" films rose to popularity with "Life of a Gambler" (1963), directed by Tadashi Sawashima and starring Koji Tsuruta. But to find the roots of that film, you have to go further back.

Todoroki: The source of the "ninkyo" films can be traced all the way back to the" "jidaigeki" " period dramas, the films set in the pre-modern Japan era that lasted until the late 1870s. Films about drifters or "toseinin"—wandering gamblers who live on the fringes of society—or rebels who defy authority and the system, have a history that begins prior to the war.

But of course it’s difficult to lump all Japanese films about outlaws into the category of "yakuza" films. Akira Kurosawa’s "Drunken Angel" (Toho 1948), for example, features Toshiro Mifune as a "yakuza" who takes over a black market just after the war—and while Kurosawa himself despised what was called “"yakuza" heroism”, he was able to bring out the best in Mifune and showcase his wild charm despite the actor being a newcomer and the film being the first of the two men’s many collaborative efforts. Still, I don’t think that in itself is enough to categorize "Drunken Angel" as a "yakuza" film.

Mori: Kurosawa also directed "Stray Dog" (Toho 1949), a detective movie starring Mifune and Takashi Shimura—and "yakuza" appear in that film as well. But if you start defining "yakuza" films as simply a type of crime movie or “Japanese gangster films,” it gets so generalized that the whole thing becomes impossible to untangle.

Todoroki: True. And yet, it might be interesting to think about them in that super-generalized way as well. I mean, Toshiro Mifune did go on to work in Toei "yakuza" films as well—did he not?

Mori: He definitely plays big "yakuza" parts in films like "Nihon No Don" series (1977-1978), literally translated as "The Head of Japan", directed by Sadao Nakajima. If you start including films that were inspired by "yakuza" films or are related to them in some way, the list definitely starts exploding.

Yakuza heroes? The classic storyline in "ninkyo" films

Mori: "Ninkyo" films have a standard format. You mentioned the phrase “"yakuza" heroism” earlier, and the stars of "ninkyo" films were essentially heroes. Even though they moved in the underground circles of the "yakuza" gangs, they still had values—a sense of discipline and what was right.

Todoroki: Yes. The main characters were old-school "yakuza" that wanted things done right—men who respected truth and logic. The new "yakuza" would come in and act in their own self-interest, even if it meant violating those principles, which would cause the main character to resist and angrily rise against them. That’s probably the most basic storyline in the "ninkyo" films.

Mori: The films are set sometime between the Meiji period and the early Showa—between the mid-19th century and early 20th. In other words, they frequently take place during an early-modern, prewar Japan where new and old values are colliding. The protagonists are part of the old-guard "yakuza", enraged at the base, domineering tactics of the capitalistic, new-world bad guys set out to destroy the old rules and codes of behavior. It’s an extremely classic dramatic composition.

Todoroki: There’s a clear binary opposition at their core. Shigeru Okada, who was head of Toei Movie Studios at the time and would later go on to become one of Toei’s most famous presidents, talks about how he used the classic Japanese tales of the forty-seven "ronin" (samurai on a mission to avenge the death of their master) as a model for the "ninkyo" films.

There’s also the theme of the protagonist having to endure outside pressure, which is another typical characteristic that was well-received by the public. The hero is pushed to the absolute limit attempting to tolerate unprincipled behavior until he can’t stand it any longer, resorting to violence at the very end. The fact that he is pressed beyond what anyone could reasonably tolerate functions as a kind of trope that audiences come to expect and understand in order to justify that violence.

Mori: It’s a great staple setup—"ninkyo" films employ classic storylines that various production teams and casts repeatedly used to create and turn out new films.

Moving beyond the standard pattern: "ninkyo" films diversify

Todoroki: I think the defining feature of the genre was something like the three-chord progression used in blues and rock and roll. I imagine that the audiences who went to see "ninkyo" films in the 1960s were swept up in the thrill of a classic entertaining movie that followed the rules and hit all the right notes.

Mori: The film studio system that made it possible to mass-produce movies churned out countless program pictures—what you might call B-movies in American cinema. Basically, they were low-budget genre pieces intended to be the second billing in a double feature.

But towards the second half of the movie studio era, as that classic pattern of the principled "yakuza" being forced to put his life on the line for a fated decision was repeated over and over again, some of the films began to take on more complex nuances.

Todoroki: One of the earlier examples of that was "Codes of Meiji" (1965) by director Tai Kato. It’s a masterpiece that really showcases the kind of straitlaced charm of Koji Tsuruta, a big star at the time, and deviates somewhat from the classic "ninkyo" film.

Before that, the genre basically depicted a man’s world. But in this film, Junko Fuji (currently Sumiko Fuji) is the heroine—a prostitute who is deeply involved in the storyline. The protagonist is caught between duty and love. She comes to him begging that he take her away with him and save her from being purchased as a permanent companion, but his duty is to become the third successor to his syndicate. He’s got this great line where he says, “The person you see is the real me… and yet it is not.” It’s a personal conflict that goes beyond a simple binary, which makes it really stand out within the classic "ninkyo" film structure.

Mori: It almost has a kind of “to be or not to be” ring to it. "Ninkyo" films that have such a fated quality to them can have the structural beauty of a myth when you really dive deeply into them. Yukio Mishima (1925–1970), the author who came to characterize an entire era of Japanese literature, lauded "Big Time Gambling Boss" (1968), directed by Kosaku Yamashita and starring Koji Tsuruta, as being “like a Greek tragedy.”

I get the sense that the kind of “man’s world” dramas where "yakuza" families split into allies and foes and get into bitter fights—in other words, those dealing with men’s loyalties and affections—appealed to Mishima in particular, as he often wrote symbolically about gender stereotypes and homosexuality. The time when "Codes of Meiji" and "Big Time Gambling Boss" were released may have been the peak of the "ninkyo" films, after which the "yakuza" movies started shifting into their next iteration.

Todoroki: I think you’re right. We should also touch on Ken Takakura, who was the greatest icon of the "ninkyo" films during their peak. He first appeared in a supporting role in "Life of a Gambler", which you mentioned before, and then became a headliner for Toei in films like the "Domain" series (1964–1971) and the "Brutal Tales of Chivalry" series (1965–1972).

For a while after he made his debut, in his younger years, Ken Takakura had a kind of rugged quality that wasn’t very popular with audiences. But he really blossomed once he began appearing in "ninkyo" films, particularly under director Masahiro Makino. Makino was a child actor and the son of Shozo Makino, sometimes called “the father of Japanese cinema,” so he had grown up at movie studios and had multiple period drama hits once he started making films. He was a master of filmmaking who knew the entertainment industry inside and out.

Takakura was able to embody the dashing gallantry that Makino loved—the warmhearted, stylish, straight-shooting man’s man, by turns capturing it as an ordinary man of the town with an artisan’s spirit or a man who managed to be both casual and imposing in kimono. The sweet spot for "ninkyo" films was to showcase, or perhaps dive deeply into, this “Makinoism.” It was like a clear prism able to express the collective principles and skills emerging during the dawn of Japanese film.

From hero to antihero: Yakuza films do a 180

Mori: The year 1968, when "Big Time Gambling Boss" was released, was the “season of politics” in Japan. While Americans were protesting the Vietnam War and France was going through the May 68 events, Japan was ramping up its movement and campaign against the US-Japan Security Treaty (Anpo Protests). The spirit of those times was indirectly reflected in the "yakuza" films.

Todoroki: As if in response to all that, the sight of Ken Takakura rushing in to attack at the climax of the movie seemed to strike a chord with the students who were throwing themselves into the political movement, and they reacted wildly to it in theaters.

But as we talked about before, the "ninkyo" films had a classic structure, and the heroism they glorified gradually became further removed from reality. The male aesthetic of dashing gallantry lost traction, becoming overly idealized and hollow. As the era unfolded, I think both directors and audiences were starting to suspect that the "ninkyo" films were overidealizing the "yakuza".

Mori: The reason people felt it was their duty to not betray their organizations and had this dashing gallantry that put their own interests on the back burner was because there was so much trust between individuals and those organization. But in an era when people came to lose faith in those values, and the "ninkyo" films eventually reached a dead end.

And just as the “season of politics” was reaching its peak, Toei started making true-crime "yakuza" films that felt almost like documentaries about actual "yakuza" conflicts. "Battles Without Honor and Humanity" (also known as "The Yakuza Papers") (1973), directed by Kinji Fukasaku, was one of the great pillars of this genre—but there were other transitional masterpieces produced just before it was created.

Todoroki: One of the most important of those was the "Modern Yakuza" series (1969–1972), which you could say served as a kind of prototype for the true-crime "yakuza" films. Bunta Sugawara starred in all of them, and was the one that above all replaced the "ninkyo" greats Koji Tsuruta and Ken Takakura as the icon of the new "yakuza" film. He appeared in "A Modern Yakuza: Chizakura Sankyodai" (1971) directed by Sadao Nakajima and in "A Modern Yakuza: Hitokiri Yota" (1972) directed by Kinji Fukasaku, establishing him as true-crime "yakuza" cinema’s leading man.

Mori: The last film in the "Modern Yakuza series, A Modern Yakuza: Hitokiri Yota", evolved into "Crazy Dogs" (1972)—another collaborative effort between Fukasaku and Sugawara. From there, it was just a hop, skip, and a jump to their crowning joint achievement of "Battles Without Honor and Humanity".

It was during that same time that Hollywood was putting out films like "Bonnie and Clyde" (1967) and "Easy Rider" (1969), thrusting it into the Hollywood Renaissance, which was defined by its antihero protagonists. Japan, too, was entering an era where its "yakuza" were moving from heroes to antiheroes.

Todoroki: Definitely. They started showing a more graphic side of human avarice that was extremely destructive, with these thrashing outlaws as protagonists. I’m sure this felt a lot more authentic to audiences, given what they were feeling at the time. Like that “The person you see is the real me… and yet it is not” line in "Codes of Meiji" that you mentioned earlier, the stories had become about the “……and yet it is me” identity coming to the surface beyond self-denial.

Taking a look at movies similar to "yakuza" films from companies other than Toei

Mori: Let’s look at the genre from a slightly different angle. Alongside Toei’s "ninkyo" films born in the 1960s, similar movies from other film companies were also being released one after another.

Todoroki: Yes. It’s interesting that the "yakuza" films became a popular genre while being impacted by a rivalry among various film companies (Shochiku, Toho, Daiei, Toei, Nikkatsu, and Shintoho).

When it comes to making movies similar to female "yakuza" films, Shintoho was ahead of the rest. In films such as "Queen Bee" (1958) by Director Satoshi Taguchi and "Queen Bee’s Anger" (1958) by Director Teruo Ishii, the daughter of a family leader inherits the leadership role. It can probably be said that those action films featuring Naoko Kubo in love scenes with kimono in disarray were the precursors to the "Woman Gambler" series (1966–1971) by Daiei that made Kyoko Enami famous and the moneymaking "The Valiant Red Peony" series (1968–1972) from Toei that starred Junko Fuji.

Todoroki: If we also look at male stars, Hideki Takahashi distinguished himself in "The Symbol of a Man" series (1963–1965) from Nikkatsu. Akira Kobayashi, who worked in Western-style action films, also came to play chivalrous characters in disheveled kimono in earnest after "The Kanto Gambler’s Fate" (1963). Daiei had the "Young Boss" series (1965–1967) with Ichikawa Raizo, and Shochiku entered the genre with Noboru Ando, who was a former "yakuza" leader…In any case, each of the companies fiercely competed in the genre.

Mori: One of the full-length novels that has been turned into a movie by various companies many times in the past is "A Man with Dragon Tattoos" from Ashihei Hino. It’s about the life of his real father who went from a dockworker at a harbor to a local person of prominence. Toei was the first to make it into a movie in 1954.

Todoroki: The lead actor was Susumu Fujita and the director was Kiyoshi Saeki. He later created the "Brutal Tales of Chivalry" series with Ken Takakura.

Mori: Nikkatsu was the next company to turn it into a movie that starred Yujiro Ishihara and was directed by Toshio Masuda. It’s interesting that, surprisingly, it was made before "Life of a Gambler" at the end of 1962.

Incidentally, the same pairing of the main actor, Yujiro and Director Masuda is seen in the Japanese gangster film, "Red Pier" (1958). Director Masuda took it upon himself to remake this movie into "Like a Shooting Star"(1967) starring Tetsuya Watari. This film plainly references famous scenes from French movies, such as "Pépé le Moko" (1937) and "Breathless" (1959).

Japanese gangster movies that copied the tone of the West also appear among Nikkatsu action films, including "A Colt is My Passport" (1967) starring Joe Shishido and directed by Takashi Nomura.

Todoroki: Like other companies, at the time Nikkatsu tried in its own way to adapt the flavor of American and French films. However, rather than resulting in a worldwide quality, the attempt particularly led to establishing a unique originality that was sometimes called ‘Nikkatsu borderless action.’ The techniques of the production group were so good that many films are enjoyable even when you watch them today.

On the other hand, when considering the impact of Japan on the West, the French master of noir film, Director Jean-Pierre Melville applied Japanese aesthetics into his own films. His film, "The Samurai" (1967) is famous. The original title is "Le Samouraï". Immediately at the start, a quote from the book, “Bushido: The Soul of Japan” is shown on screen. “There is no greater solitude than that of a samurai unless it is that of the tiger in the jungle.” However, the film is a complete fabrication of Melville’s that has no relation to the original text by Inazo Nitobe (laughs). Nevertheless, it’s brimming with a solemn atmosphere throughout that evokes "The Samurai" spirit, from staging to filming and art. It’s amazing.

Mori: Back then, each film company had their movies with their own characteristics. Many of Toho’s films had a modern style. Director Kihachi Okamoto made the Japanese gangster movies, "The Big Boss" (1959) and "The Last Gunfight" (1960). The first starred Koji Tsuruta, and the second starred both Toshiro Mifune and Tsuruta.

Shochiku started the "It’s Tough Being a Man" series directed by Yoji Yamada in 1969. The comedy drama series was extremely popular with the Japanese people. This might also be a type of movie derived from "yakuza" films because the lead character of Torajiro Kuruma or Tora-san, who was played by Kiyoshi Atsumi, is a wandering huckster (a dealer who peddles goods from street stalls, etc. and is defined as a kind of "yakuza").

Todoroki: Some people describe the start of this series as a parody of "yakuza" films. But, I think that the creators had little intention to make a parody. If anything, perhaps the true nature of the series’ main character, Torajiro is the paradox of being unsuccessful at becoming a "yakuza" member, only to return home and unconsciously search for the happiness of the lower-middle class.

Torajiro’s nickname is ‘the vagabond Tora-san.’ The characters used to write ‘vagabond’ in Japanese imply a capricious nature and can also be integrated into the context of a Japanese hippie. That character can also be regarded as reflecting the year 1969, which was the height of the hippie era in America.

Also, Nagisa Oshima, Yoshishige Yoshida, and others who worked at Shochiku and ultimately left the company explored a new kind of film style called the ‘Shochiku New Wave.’ Director Masahiro Shinoda was at the forefront of that movement. He engagingly depicted a maverick "yakuza" member in the extremely stylish noir film, "Pale Flower" (1964). Ryo Ikebe who appeared in the film acted as the sidekick to Ken Takakura in Toei’s "Brutal Tales of Chivalry" series and gained popularity in each film. This interconnection straddling company and genre shouldn’t be overlooked.